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The org directive speci es the address where the following instructions are placed. The $ directive used in goto $ returns the current address, so the instruction literally means jump to this address and forms an in nite loop that execution cannot escape from. These two directives will probably be used in every assembly language program you write. The call instruction (shown in Fig. 7.34) works almost exactly the same way as goto, except the pointer to the next instruction is stored on the program counter stack. There are three types of return statements in the mid-range PIC and PIC18 microcontrollers. Each of these instructions pops the current value from the top of the hardware stack and stores it in the program counter. These addresses are the next instructions that were saved when the subroutine was called or an interrupt handler was completed. The simple return instruction (Fig. 7.35) returns the stack pointer to the address pointed after the instruction calling the subroutine and no registers or control bits are changed. Another of the return instructions is retlw, which loads w with a constant value before returning from a subroutine (Fig. 7.36). This instruction is the only return

+ WCCC/WHCH)

Figure 7.34 Before the program counter is loaded with the 13-bit address from the instruction and PCLATH register in the call instruction, it is stored on the program counter stack.

instruction available in the low-end devices. This instruction is useful for implementing tables that return constant values. The operation of the retlw instruction:

Emergencies call for quick reactions. If you ve considered what you might do in an emergency situation, you re likely to respond in a positive manner. The following are examples of emergency situations.

could be simulated in the mid-range PIC microcontroller by the use of the two instructions:

Figure 7.35 The return instruction will be pulled from the stack and stored into the program counter.

Figure 7.36 The retlw instruction loads literal value into w and returns from subroutine instruction operation.

The instruction is useful for returning table information (which is explained in the next section) or returning condition information in w that can be tested by the calling program. The instruction loads w with an immediate value before executing a return from interrupt. The ret e instruction is similar to the return instruction except that it is used to return from an interrupt; in fact, the only difference between ret e and return is that the GIE bit in the interrupt control register (INTCON) is set during the ret e instruction. This allows interrupt requests to be acknowledged immediately following the execution of the instruction and the interrupt handler. As I have indicated elsewhere in this book, the PIC microcontroller architecture doesn t use jump on condition instructions. Instead, there are a number of instructions that allow skipping the next instruction in line based on speci c conditions. The basic instructions that carry out this function are the skip on bit condition instructions, btfsc and btfss. These two instructions use the same format as the bit set and reset instructions (bcf and bsf) although they test the condition of a bit rather than specify its state. The btfsc instruction skips over the next instruction if the bit condition is reset (0). The format of the instruction is:

btfss skips over the next instruction if the bit condition is set (1). The format for the instruction is:

If the bit condition is not true and the skip is not executed, then the btfsc and btfss instructions execute in one instruction cycle. If the condition is true, then the instruction executes in two cycles, essentially treating the following instruction like a nop. These two instructions are used as the basic method of conditionally changing the execution of an application. For example, to jump to an address if the zero ag is set, a goto is added to the btfsc instruction:

Notice that in the snippet above I test for the negative condition and skip over the next instruction if it is true. If you learned programming in an environment that didn t have structured programming instructions, you should be familiar for this. To explain what I mean, consider the structured if/else code in C:

(9.12)

To execute this in an unstructured language, you would code it as: